The Religion of Paul the Apostle by John Ashton Essay Example for Free

The Religion of Paul the Apostle by John Ashton Essay This book is the outcome of the author’s conviction that an important way of understanding Saint Paul has been neglected. He mentions the idea expressed in 1888 by Hermann Gunkel, that Paul’s life experiences are the key to understanding his teaching about the spirit. On page 198 Ashton quotes Heinrich Weinel as saying :-   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Whenever the early church speaks of spirit and spirits it is always a matter of a perception based on frequent occurrences of real experiences. We see therefore that this book is much more an attempt to explain Paul’s experiences than yet another examination of his theology. The blurb on the back of this unusual book says in the author’s own words :- Paul did, I think, found a religion, and this book is largely concerned   with the question of how he came to do so. Besides being a study of comparative religion it is also proffered as a contribution towards the   history of early Christianity. Some would argue with that definition – it seems to remove Christ from the picture and also the work of other evangelists. Paul has such a prominent position in the New Testament not necessarily because he was more important than other evangelists, but because, in Luke, he had such an excellent biographer. A look at the Bible references in the back of the book reveals how many times Paul’s life or words are referenced in comparison to the relatively few references taken from the gospels and the Old Testament. The book is very concerned with definitions, in particular with the difference between   religion – defined as experience, and theology – defined as the thinking that comes as a result of that experience. This is a scholarly work as can be seen immediately from the background of the author and the number of works by other scholars that he has consulted .John Ashton was formerly a lecturer in New Testament Studies at Oxford University. He had previously taught at the universities of London, St Andrews and Edinburgh. At the time of writing this book ( 2000) he was Emeritus Fellow of Wolfson College, also in Oxford. He is best known for writing about John’s gospel – ‘Understanding the Fourth Gospel’, ‘Approaches to the Fourth Gospel’ etc ‘The religion of Saint Paul the Apostle’ was originally a series of 8 lectures which the author had been asked to give at Oxford University in 1998. These were the annual ‘Wilde Lectures in Natural and Comparative Religion’, founded under a trust deed in 1908. The nature of the lectures has changed over the years   as Ashton explains. Once upon a time they sought to distinguish the higher religions from the lower, but this second part of the description was dropped in 1969, probably in an attempt not to appear racist or judgmental. He uses material both from Paul himself, but also from contemporaries of his from both Jewish and Hellenistic, i.e. pagan, backgrounds. Ashton describes how from the 1880’s onwards there had been attempts to study the New Testament as objectively as one might study any other historical sources, but also goes on to say that the people were concerned were actually theologians rather than historians and were in the main Christians. It is however a subject t upon which it is very difficult to remain objective whatever one’s background as believer, atheist, agnostic or member of another religion.   Ashton’s main argument in this work is that Paul’s personal mystical experiences, especially the events on the Damascus road recorded by Luke in Acts 9, may be of more importance than the somewhat unsystematic theology of his letters. The book seeks to show how important aspects of Paul’s life and ministry should be seen in the light of his religious experience. He quotes Schweitzer who said of Paul’s mysticism that it ‘marks the last stage of the battle fought by the idea of resurrection to establish its place in eschatology’. He examines closely what he sees as shamanistic elements of Paul, both in his teaching and his letters and mentions how, from the1880’s onwards there have been those who have sought to prove that Paul was greatly influenced by pagan mystery religions which abounded at the time giving as an example his theology of baptism which it could be argued was very similar to that of the re-enactions of the death and rebirth of various gods such as Attis,   a Phrygian god of vegetation and Adonis,   a Greek deity. These ideas would be familiar to Paul, bought up as he was in a world where Greek influence was important, but his main influence   must have been his Jewish background, although Ashton believes that Paul’s religion was rather more than a mere modification of Judaism. On page 135 Ashton describes baptism as practised in the churches that Paul founded as being no more than a token when compared to the rites of passage practised in other religions of the time. Some would disagree with this minimalisation of what they see as an important part of Christian ritual, and in many churches it is only undertaken after a period of instruction which may be quite prolonged. Ashton says that the starting point for Paul’s thinking on the subject comes not from his knowledge of baptismal practices in Judaism, but was a result of his dramatic death life experience on the Damascus road and the subsequent resurrection to a new life in Damascus.   In chapter 7 he explains the part that the spirit world played in ancient times – anything that could not be explained was deemed to be the work of spirits and gods – for good or ill. Mention is made of how demons were believed to be behind and to explain all sorts of happenings that deviated from the norm such as storms, plagues, riots, unhappy love affairs and much more. Paul does not mention demons much, though he does refer to what he sees as his one great adversary – Satan. Ashton explains the role of the spirit both in Paul’s life and in that of his converts. He also examines the role of Christ himself in a passage which he realises may cause offence as it is entitled ‘Jesus the Shaman’.   In order to mitigate any offence he states that shamanism was not the most important aspect of Jesus’ ministry, but says that Jesus’ life as a wandering healer fits in with shamanistic practices even more than does the work of Paul. He claims that Jesus was not unique in this quoting several sources. There is detailed reference to the various words used to describe Jesus’ actions in ‘muzzling’ evil spirits. This, Ashton says, merely places Christ alongside other exorcists of the time. The difference was how he did it according to Mark chapter 3 v 11 and 12 where we are told that â€Å" Whenever the evil spirits saw him they fell down before him and cried out ‘You are the Son of God’.† On page 69, still discussing the shamanism of Christ, Ashton reminds us that in all three synoptic gospels the two incidents of the baptism of Christ and the temptation in the wilderness are recorded in that order and   he admits that for the purposes of his argument it would be better if they had been   recorded in the reverse order which would have fitted in better with the usual shamanistic experience of struggle followed by call or empowerment but a t least the two are associated.   Although in chapter 2, entitled ‘Paul the Enigma’ the question is asked ‘Was Paul a shaman?’ the answer is quickly given ‘Not really’. A shaman is a member of a tribal society who acts as a medium between the natural world and the spiritual one. A shaman is limited in his influence and also his periods of spirit filled ecstasy are limited and transitory. He uses magic to control events in the natural world, whether for good as in healing, or for bad as in curses. Paul did use his powers to control nature as when on the isle of Malta ( Acts 27) to cure many people, but it was available widely and not used in a negative way. Yet the author insists that some of Paul’s practices were shamanistic in nature and quotes the example of a picture of Paul struck blind from ‘Trà ¨s Riches Heures du Duc de Berry.’ Under the picture are the words ‘The inspired priest or shaman is usually called to his vocation   by a traumatic experience.’ Ashton sees the role of the shaman in two parts – the shaman’s personal experience and his ability to persuade other people of his exceptional gifts. This latter aspect is described as the social aspect. Ashton quotes at length from a Japanese work on the subject which states that a shaman is one who receives a gift from the spirit world. Usually this is from one spirit who becomes a companion or guide and after receiving the gift the shaman may experience a period of hysteria afterwards which results in illness. The process involves a complete change of character, perhaps like that described at the time of Paul’s meeting with the risen Christ. Whatever happened to Paul he himself saw it as a vision and a call – see Galatians 1. On page 243 Ashton mentions the finding of the documents now known as the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947. One of these ‘Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice’ was finally published only in 1985. He states that as early as 1971 John Bowker had put forward the proposition that Paul’s vision took place while he was engaged in a period of merkabah mysticism as mentioned in the scroll. He then mentions the doctoral thesis published in 1980 by Seyoon Kim ‘The Origin’s of Paul’s Gospel† which seems able to prove a link between Ezekiel 1, a key passage in the study of such mystic practises, and the verse in the Second letter to the Corinthians   ( 4 v 6) where it says ‘For God who said â€Å"Let light shine out of darkness† made his light shine in our hearts’. Ashton further argues that Paul’s ability to discuss spiritual matters is important in understanding the continuing popularity of his writings. The aim is to define Paul – a convert, a prophet, a mystic, an apostle, a charismatic, a shaman. Whichever definition one prefers Ashton argues that Paul acted as he did because of the set of circumstances in which he found himself. In chapter 4, entitled ‘Paul the Mystic’ Ashton is concerned with Paul’s mystical experiences, especially the rapture which he described in 2 Corinthian 12 as being carried up to the third heaven. The trances in which visions like these occur were well known in Judaism, but as Ashton points out, are a feature of shamanistic activities throughout the world. Despite this Ashton admits on his final page that any observable resemblances between Paul’s life and features of shamanism are coincidence only. Another aspect of the book is the examination of why, according to Ashton, Paul generally seemed to prefer to speak to Gentile audiences rather than the Jews of whom he was one, and, alongside this, there is an examination of Paul’s attitude to traditional Judaism, which it is possible he never officially renounced. See 2nd Corinthians 11 v 22 ‘Are they Hebrew? So am I’   Ã‚  Ashton seems fascinated with the idea of the symbiosis of Judaism and its younger offspring Christianity as when Paul spent three weeks at Thessalonica explaining how Jesus had to die and rise again, using the Jewish scriptures to do so.( Acts 17 v 1-4). Christians today read Paul’s words after 2000 years of the church developing his ideas into what we call Christian theology, something that was not in place before Paul – says Ashton, but he pays little attention to the theology of Christ found in the gospels. Ashton believed that Paul was a religious thinker in the sense that his thoughts were reflection upon his experiences rather than a pure theologian. In his introduction Ashton discusses various previous ways of looking at Paul and his influence i.e. a studies of his conversion and subsequent work in founding and building Christian communities; those who aim to present a systematic account of his thinking; Paul’s psychology and finally those who seek to put his work in a historical or/and sociological perspective. He concludes that none of these approaches quite fits his purpose, without stating precisely what his purpose is at this point. Chapter 2 describes Paul as an enigma – a puzzle. He questions how much shamanistic practices, already present in Judaism back until the time of the Judges, affected Paul. Ashton quotes passages from I Samuel describing prophets and seers, a translation which Ashton believes to be wrong. and quotes much later passages, in Isaiah and Jeremiah where the practices of mediums and so on were condemned e.g. Isaiah 8 v 19. Like many others of Christ’s followers Paul was an exorcist and a prophet. On page 36 Ashton concludes that there is no evidence that Paul picked up shamanistic practices from another   shaman, unless, as some such as Andrew Wilson believe, he did meet Christ in life and copied his practices. Among the many works quoted is Karl Barth’s commentary on Romans in which Ashton says that Barth deplores any attempt to describe Paul as a religious figure. Also mentioned is   J. Louis Martyn who aims in his commentary to dispel the idea that Paul was in any way anti-Jewish. Barth in particular splits religion absolutely from theology, but although it is possible to study the subject in a totally objective way, just as one might study chemistry, I do not feel that this is true of Paul. His theology sprang very definitely from his personal experience of the Saviour and the Holy Spirit working within him. Ashton also tries to explain the huge success of Paul’s message in bringing about change in the lives of both individual’s and communities. On page 234, in a chapter entitled ‘Paul the Possessed’ Ashton quotes Paul’s words in his letter to the Galatian church , Galatians 4   v14, where he describes how, despite his physical difficulties, he was welcomed ‘as if I were an angel of God’ i.e. as a messenger directly from God.   George Bertram is quoted as saying that this passage is the key to Paul’s own understanding of his role.    ‘He is entitled   to speak in this way’ says Bertram , ‘because Christ is manifested in him, in his body, in his missionary work’. On page 236 Evans-Pritchard’s statement about how, when a man is seized by a spirit, the event may be a temporary one, is quoted. Evans-Pritchard went on to say that if it is a permanent possession, the person becomes a prophet capable of healing, of exorcism and having foresight into events. The presence of the Holy Spirit was the ruling factor in Paul’s life. Consider for instance his words in Romans 8 v 14 -16:-‘Those who are led by the Spirit of God are the sons of God ‘ and ‘the Spirit itself testifies with our spirit that we are God’s children’. Yet this is the same Paul who described himself in 1st Timothy as ‘the worst of sinners.’ (I Tim. 1 v 16). How great the change must have been. If we take Luke’s word in Acts 28 where he describes how Paul, right up until what may have been the end of his life, continued to teach and preach and quoted Isaiah who spoke about how the Holy Spirit spoke the truth, then in Paul’s case the change that occurred on the Damascus road was very permanent and influenced all that he both did and said.   Professor Ashton claims on page 162, in a chapter concerned with the apostleship of Paul, that Luke, as biographer, has no interest in the question that intrigues him. The story Luke is telling is that of how Christ, rejected by the Jews, was proclaimed to the Gentiles. Luke was eager to show how Paul used scripture to make his point. Ashton describes Paul, on page 162, as the chief witness and as such he was not reluctant to use spiritual power to do so.( I Corinthians 2 v 5) Just as Luke uses the phrase ‘in the power of the spirit’ to describe how Jesus returned to Galilee, Paul uses the same phrase to describe his own activity. Luke also tells us that Christ gave the apostles power and how Paul manifested similar power. Ashton mentions the passage in 2nd Corinthians 12 v 12 that he feels is the key to Paul’s ability to gain a hearing and also to convince –‘The things that mark an apostle – signs, wonders and miracles – were done among you with great perseverance.’ The people were convinced because his words had authority behind them – an authority he claimed came from the Messiah himself. Ashton mentions the work of Ramsey MacMullen in describing how religious fairs would convince people to join pagan religions. Their senses would be assaulted by all kinds of wonders. Ashton claims that Paul’s career begun in a similar way as a wonder worker and, although Luke tells us that Paul preached the word it seems likely that it was his spiritual acts that were the first attraction and only later did promises of salvation and forgiveness take root. Ashton concludes his unusual book by saying that he is a historian, and having looked at Paul using history and comparative anthropology as an alternative to the work of theologians, he hopes that if the book is noticed at all it will show that the way of the theologian is not the only way to come to an understanding of Paul the Apostle. This is not an easy book to either read or review. Not because it is difficult to follow the arguments, whether or not one agrees with them, but because it is so easy to get sidetracked along paths that one has not perhaps explored before such as the influence of Jewish mysticism on the early church or what other commentators say about a passage  Ã‚   such as that in Ezekiel chapter 1. Bu t if it rouses interest in this subject it has done its job even if the author is rather divident to whether or not or not he has proved his point.       Bibliography and Works Cited Ashton, John, Approaches to the Fourth Gospel ( Oxford University Press, Oxford 1994) Ashton, John, The Religion of Paul the Apostle ( Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 2000) Ashton, John, Understanding the Fourth Gospel (Clarendon Paperbacks, Oxford, 1994) Bertram,G. ,Paulus Christophoys:Ein anthropologisches Problem des Neuen Testaments in Stromata: Festgabe des akademischen Verreins zu Giessen im Schmalkaldener Kartell anlà ¤ÃƒÅ¸lich seines 50. Stiftungstages ( Leipzig 1930) Bible, New International Version ( Hodder and Stoughton, London 1998) Bowker,J. ‘Merkabah’ Visions and Visions of Paul, ( JSS 16 1971) Evans-Pritchard, E.E. Nuer Religion,( Oxford 1956). Gunkel, H. Die Wirkungen des heiligen Geistes nach der populà ¤ren Anschuung der apostolischen Zeit und der Lehre des apostels Paulus ( Gà ¶ttingen 1888) Kim,S., The Origin of Paul’s Gospel, ( Berlin 1984). Ramsey,W.M., The Bearing of Recent discoveries on the Trustworthiness of the New Testament,( London 1915) Schweitzer,A.   Geschichte der paulinnischen Forschung von der Reformation bis auf die Gergenwart.( Tà ¼bingen 191) Trà ¨s Riches Heures du Duc de Berry http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/rh/1.html ( accessed 12th January 2008). Weinel,H., Die Wirkungen des Geistes und der Geister im nachapostolischen Zeitaler bis zum Irenà ¤us ( Friburg i.B/Liepzig/Tà ¼bingen 1899) Wilson,A.N. Paul  :the Mind of the Apostle, ( London 1997).

Sample Assignment Coca-Cola Global Marketing Strategy

Sample Assignment Coca-Cola Global Marketing Strategy Introduction As domestic markets mature, it is becoming more and more fashionable for organisations to seek growth through opportunities in foreign countries. Faster communication, new technologies and improved transport links are making international markets more accessible and businesses pursuing a global position can experience an upsurge in brand awareness and cost effectiveness. Global marketing is a relatively new concept linked to these developments. In the main, it is concerned with decisions for integrating or standardising marketing actions across a number of geographic markets. This does not rule out any customisation of the marketing mix to individual countries but suggests that organisations should capitalise on similarities between markets to build competitive advantage. Compelling cases can be put forward for both a standardisation or adaptation approach to international marketing practice. These arguments are keenly explored, drawing from examples of Coca-Colas international marketing programme to elucidate key points. Background of Coca-Cola As the worlds largest manufacturer and distributor of non-alcoholic beverages, Coca-Cola is certainly no stranger to global marketing. Established in the US, Coca-Cola initiated its global expansion in 1919 and now markets to more than 200 countries worldwide. It is one of the most recognizable brands on the planet and also owns a large portfolio of other soft drink brands including Schweppes, Oasis, 5 alive, Kea Oar, Fanta, Lilt, Dr Pepper, Sprite and Powerade. Despite this, Coca-Cola often struggles to maintain its market share over its main rival PepsiCo in some overseas markets, particularly Asian countries. Arguments for Standardisation †¢ Converging customer needs and preferences It is proposed by Levitt that the forces of globalisation driven by technology and wider travel are leading to more homogenised customer needs and wants worldwide. This paves the way for the building of global brand identities where companies are able to export their domestic brands to mass markets abroad and consumers will react to them in similar ways. In this sense, standardised marketing with a universal product and message can be an integrating force across national borders. To send out different communication messages across countries could lead to customer confusion and even dilution of the brand. In keeping with this, Coca-Cola sells virtually the same Coke beverage worldwide. The design of Coca-Cola soft drinks has changed little in its history, from the logo to the distinctive glass bottle. These unique and consistent characteristics evoke a strong brand image which has cross-cultural appeal. †¢ Economies of scale/experience In many industries, companies can reap cost advantages by operating on a global scale and ultimately improve their all-round competitiveness. Using a centralised structure, a firm can draw economies from bulk purchase discounts or by sharing functions such as product development, marketing, production and managerial resources among different markets. In Coca-Colas example, economies are gained through the competent running of a large-scale franchising system for its bottling operations. †¢ Technological viability In sectors where technological and production processes are homogeneous, extra weight is placed on standardisation of products as a prerequisite for success. As part of its vision that Coke should taste the same around the world, Coca-Cola has chosen to standardise its product and manufacturing process. The knock on effects of this are more streamlined procedures and greater cost efficiencies. It is worth noting Levitts argument that companies which opt to produce an assortment of products serving different customer segments would be unable to survive globalisation due to inefficiencies in their operation. Arguments for Adaptation †¢ Consumer Diversity Supporters of the adaptation view contend that, regardless of globalisation, consumers in different countries continue to vary dramatically in their geographic, demographic, economic and cultural characteristics. It is sensible to imply that, where there are differences in product preferences, product uses, attitudes, shopping patterns, income levels and education, a business will need to adapt its product offering or communication programme in some shape or form. By carefully singling out the most significant differences, organisations can tailor products to suit local tastes and conditions. Dennis and Harris pronounced that global branding strategy should actually be a local plan for each component market, as to apply a standard approach worldwide without considering local preferences and cultural differences is doomed to failure. Food and beverage organisations in particular, can easily fall prey to obstacles such as regional taste and category development issues. On the other hand, organisations that market internationally have to bear in mind that customising communication and product strategy will increase overall marketing costs. Traditionally, Coca-Cola used a standardised marketing campaign strategy where it would pull advertisements for specific markets from a common pool of adverts designed to have universal appeal. Lately, Coca-Cola has chosen to back away from a full standardisation approach and to instead tweak its efforts to accommodate local culture and nuances. Its former approach was deemed too rigid with some of its campaigns not always successfully transcending national borders. Although the branding and position of Coca-Cola remains consistent worldwide, its execution is based on what is judged to be best for each local market. This is evident in its Live on the Coke Side of Life advertisement campaign launched in 2006 where elements of local culture are included. On the product side, Coke bottles and cans include the target countries native language and are sized to match up to other beverage bottles or cans in that country. The company also offers a varied product line-up to capture different consumer tastes, for example, soy drinks for its Asian markets. †¢ Differences in Infrastructure and Regulations Several multinational companies, including Coca-Cola, have discovered that operating from a completely central and standardised perspective can impede the progress of the company, especially when it comes to understanding and integrating with local conditions. Coca-Cola is well known for its widespread accessibility through a variety of channels such as large supermarkets, petrol stations, restaurants, hospitals, cafes and so on. Having a strong brand gave Coca-Cola the supplier bargaining power it needed to break into the more complex and entrenched distribution systems of lots of countries. Adding the fact that food laws can vary tremendously from one country to another, it is not surprising that Coca-Cola describes itself as multi-local. Despite a standardised product, Coca-Cola is obliged to adopt different approaches to the global marketplace. This goes some way to disproving Levitts idea that one size fits all and emphasises a plan global, act local approach instead. Conclusion In essence, the arguments above reveal that global marketing is not necessarily an all or nothing proposition. Companies have the freedom to choose from many possibilities on the spectrum from total standardisation through to complete customisation. Clearly there are circumstances where multinationals can gain through increased standardisation of products and marketing, especially with respect to keeping costs down and building brand power. On the other hand, in conditions where national market differences are more marked, this strategy would harm the company and its reputation. By making standardisation decisions using target market conditions as its starting point, an organisation can ensure that, in the long-term, customers are being offered what they want. Although Coca-Cola can seemingly gain a great deal from a standardised agenda, its decision to combine global and local resources is ultimately more long-standing in a market where national customer differences are influential.

Free Surface Energy of Polymers

Free Surface Energy of Polymers Free surface energy of polymers. Poly(itaconate)s and poly(methacrylate)s Ligia Gargallo1, Claudia Aguirre2, Angel Leiva2, Deodato Radic Abstract: The free surface energy (SE) for a series of mono and diesters derived from poly(itaconic) acid, was determined by wettability measurements and estimated by theoretical calculations from Sugden’s Parachor. For these polymers it was observed a decreaseing in the free surface energy as the size of the chain of the alkyl groups in monoitaconates and diisoalkylitaconates increases. However, it did not allow to get values of the free surface energy comparable with experimental values, exception was for poly(2-chloroethyl diitaconate) and poly(3-chloropropyl diitaconate) where the experimental and theoretical variation was comparable. It means that the Sugden method match well for these polymers. Additionally, it was determined the free surface energy for some polymers from poly(methacrylic acid) derivatives, specifically poly(phenyl methacrylate)s (PPhMA). For these systems a decreasing in the free surface energy is observed, when a fluorine atom was introduced into the p henyl group. In general there was not a good correlation between experimental values and those estimated through the theoretical calculations. The influence of polymeric film thickness and topography on the determination of contact angle was studied for poly(phenylmethacrylate)s. The results show that the film thickness to determine contact angle must be over 254 A °. 1. Introduction In general it is very well known that due to the lack of surface mobility, the surface tension of a solid phase is too different to a liquid phase. So that, it is not possible to measure directly the surface tension of a solid phase, as it is the case of a liquid phase. It had been used several independent approximations to estimate the surface tension on a given system surface solid, being the measurement of contact angle the most practical way[1-11 ]. The surface of a solid, as well as of a liquid, has an additional free energy, but due to this lack of mobility in the surface of solids this energy is not possible to measure directly. [12] It means that the free surface energy can be estimated by wettability measurements in an indirect way, as shown in Figure 1. [13,14] An approximation to estimate the surface energy of solids is based on the interpretation of contact angle of sesil drop. Figure 1. Sesil drop over a solid surface. The arrows represent the surface energies when they are explained like forces of surface tension. From the schematic representation on Figure1, and considering the equilibrium state, the Young’s equation is obtained. This equation establishes a relationship between the contact angle and the three surface tensions: (2) where: ÃŽ ¸ is the contact angle, à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ §s à ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  is the surface energy of solid-vapor interface, à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ §sl is the surface energy solid-liquid interface and à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ §l the surface energy at liquid-vapor interface. The dispersion force and polar contribution to SE, ÃŽ ³d and ÃŽ ³p, respectively, can be calculated by using the Owens, Wendt and Kaelble method. [15-17] The aim of this work is to obtain information about the free surface energy of several polymers with different chemical structures and various side chains. It was also interesting to clarify the inflence of the thickness and topography of the film in the determination of the SE of the polymeric systems studied. 2. Experimental Synthesis and characterization of poly(diisoalkylitaconate)s, poly(monoitaconate)s and poly(methacrylate)s Diisoalkylitaconates were obtained by conventional acid catalyzed esterification of itaconic acid using sulphuric acid in toluene and the corresponding acohols. [18-20] Monoitaconates were obtained by reaction of itaconic acid with the respective alcohols under fairly acidic conditions according to the method described by Baker et al., [21,22] for lower monoesters. Methacrylates were prepared by reaction of methacryloyl chloride with the appropriate alcohols in toluene solutions and N.N-dimethylaniline at reflux temperature during 24 h. Purification of the monomers was achieved by distillation under reduced pressure (0.5 mm Hg) as previously reported [23,24] for diitaconates and methacrylates. Purification of monoitaconates were achieved by repeated crystallization from toluene. The monomer structures and purity were confirmed by 1H-NMR and infrared spectroscopy with Fourier Transform (FT-IR). Polymerization was achieved in bulk at 340 and 350 K, depending on the monomer, using azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN) as initiator under N2 (polymerization time 48-60 h; conversion 70%) for diitaconates, 48 h for monoitaconates; yield 35% and 10-3 w/w % of AIBN in benzene solution under vacuum in the case of methacrylates (polymerization time, 48 h; conversion 65%). Preparation of Polymeric films. Films of poly(monoitaconate)s and poly(diitaconate)s were prepared by evaporation of dilute solutions (0,05 g/dL) in tetrahydrofuran (THF), over the glass and silicon wafer plates. Poly(metacrylate)s were prepared from dilute solutions 0.05 g/dL in chloroform. Contact angle measurements Surface free energy. The total surface energies of the polymers were determined by wettability measurements with water, diiodomethane and ethyleneglycol. Polymers films were cast onto glass slides for optical microscopy and silicon wafer. The cast films were dried for 30 min at 393 K. The wettability of the polymer films was determined by contact angle measurements. Contact angles were measured using a contact angle system OCA by Dataphysics with a conventional goniometer and high performance video camera, controlled by SCA20 software. A syringe connected to a Teflon capillary of about 2 mm inner diameter was used to supply liquid into the sessile drops from above. A sessile drop of about 0.4-0.5 cm radius was used. The contact angles were measured carefully from the left and right side of the drop and subsequently averaged. These procedures were repeated for six drops of each liquid on three new surfaces. All reading were then averaged to give an average contact angle. All experiments were performed at room temperature. Determination of polymeric film thickness by ellipsometry. Optical Assembly. The ellipsometer used has a polarizer, a compensator, the sample, an analyzer and a detector. The light source comes from He-Ne laser whose wavelength is 632.8 nm, that fall onto the sample with an angle of 60.65 °. The analyzer remains fixed at an angle of 24.256 °, and the polarizer is mechanically adjusted so that the detector does not record any signal. Silicon wafers (Silicon doped with Boron crystalline plates) were used as substrates. Pieces of 12 x 12 mm were used. The most important characteristic of these substrates, are the refractive index of silicon of 3.877 + 0.019 [25, 26] and the refractive index of PPhMA was 1.5706 [27]. Substrates were also properly cleaned and dried, being their typical polarization angle between 43.8 and 43.9 °. Preparation of films of poly(phenylmethacrylate). The film of PPhMA was prepared by evaporation of the polymeric solution in chlorform over the silicon wafer. In order to get different films thickness of PPhMA, different concentration of the polymeric solutions were used. Concentrations were 0.05 g/dL, 0.10 g/dL, 0.20 g/dL, 0.30 g/dL and 0.40 g/dL. Estimation of film topography. Morphological analysis of surface films of poly(phenylmethacrylate) were done by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). A film of PPhMA of 94  ± 10 Ã… thickness was prepared from a solution of 0.05 g/dL in chloroform and deposited over a silicon wafer as substrate. 3. Results and Discussion. Polymers studied in this work were mono and diesters from poly(itaconic) acid, and additionally some polymers from poly(methacrylic) acid were also studied. The sixteen polymers studied are shown in scheme 1. Surface free energy was determined by measuring the contact angles (CAs) of water, ethyleneglycol and diiodomethane on the polymeric surfaces. The dispersion ÃŽ ³d and polar ÃŽ ³p contributions were calculated by the Owens, Wendt and Kaelble methods. [15,16, 28,29] The results obtained by wettability measurements of polymeric systems studied are summarized in Tables 1 to 4. In the same tables are the surface energy calculated from Sudgen ´s parachor (à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ § =(Ps/V)4) for the same polymers. In the case of poly(diisoalkyl itaconate)s it can be seen that the number of methylene groups increases the lateral chain, the calculated surface energy values decreases. This is a normal behavior because the hydrophobicity of the polymer must increase. However, it did not allow to get experimental values that present this behavior. As it is important to consider the possible errors on the determination of SE values due to the effects of the roughness and at the same time the thickness on adsorbed polymers. For this reason the film thickness was studied to clarify its influence on the measurement of contact angle. Mono esters of poly(itaconic) acid Diesters of poly(itaconic) acid Poly (methacrylic) acid Scheme 1 In order to get films with different thickness the concentration of the solution of poly(phenylmethacrylate), PPhMA, was modified. Thicknesses and topography of the films were measured by ellipsometry on silicon wafer substrates. It was found a good linear correlation between film thickness and polymer concentration. (Regression coefficient R=0.98955). Surface free energy of substrates used was also determined in order to obtain this information to perform appropriate comparison of the results dealing with this polymer. The film thickness determination for PPhMA was made on silicon wafer, and on a glass plate. The surface free energy values in both substrates were compared. Table 5 shows surface free energy values found for PPhMA in these substrates. Topography of the surface of PPhMA film at a thickness of 94 A ° was studied by SEM micrography. It was found that the polymer is homogenously distributed on the silicon wafer substrate, showing a surface with regular porosity. This demonstrates that PPhMA film whose thickness is 94 Ã…, the surface is not completely cover and it produces in the measurement of the contact angle non reproducible values, due to the liquid will penetrate itself within the holes. Determination of surface free energy for PPhMA was performed at different film thickness. It was observed that for films thickness of PPhMA greater than 24513 A º there is a better reproducibility in the values of contact angle obtained. The SE values are shown in Table 6. 4. Conclusions Poly(monoitaconate)s with large lateral chains as poly(monodecylitaconate) and poli(monododecylitaconate), it was found that the surface free energy decreases as the length of the alkyl group increases. It allows concluding that the polymer increases its hydrophobic character, as its lateral chain increases. It is in agreement with its chemical structure. The surface free energy calculated through the Parachor parameter, for the poly(monoitaconate)s studied, decrease as the lateral chain increases its size. The estimation of surface free energy for the poly(diisoalkyl)itaconates, through Parachor, allows observing a decrease in the surface free energy for polymers, as the length of lateral chain increase; that is direct relation with the experimental work done. However, this work does not allow getting surface free energy values for those polymers comparable with the experimental value. The theoretical method of Sugden was not adequate to estimate those measurements. For polymers poly(2-chloroethyl diitaconate) and poli(3-chloropropyl itaconate), the variation of experimental and theoretical surface free energy was slight. It will imply that Sugden method is well fitted for those polymers. The study of surface free energy for poly(phenylmethacrylate)s shows that the introduction of a fluorine atom at phenyl group generates a decrease in its surface free energy. For poly(phenylmetacrylate), the results showed the film thickness, needed to determinate the contact angle, need to be higher than 24513 AËÅ ¡. The difference in the measurement of surface free energy between those experimentally determined and those estimated since Parachor, are related to the complexity of the monomeric structure. It is likely that the volume of each group or atomic unit would be influenced by interactions of neighbor atoms within the monomeric unit. Therefore calculations of surface free energy based on the table of structural contributions of Sugden’s Parachor would not fit at the experimental values. Acknowledgements. DR and AL. thanks to Fondecyt 1120091 for parcial finantial support. References [1] T. Rabockai Fà ­sico-Quà ­mica de Superficies, Ed. The General Secretariat of the Organization of American States Washington, D.C., Brazil, (1979). [2] M. Dà ­az Peà ±a, M., Quà ­mica Fà ­sica, Vol. II, cap.25. (1976). [3] R. A. L.Jones, R. W. Richards, Polymers at Surfaces and Interfaces, Ed. Cambridge University Press, U.K., (1999). [4] W.A. Zisman, Contact Angle, Wettability and Adhesion, Advances in Chemistry Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, D.C., Volume 43, (1964). [5] K. Ma, T. Chung, R. Good, Surface energy of thermotropic liquid crystalline polyesters and polyesteramide. J. Polym. Sci.: Part B 36,(1988) 2327-2337. [6] O. Driedger, AW Neumann, PJ Sell; Contact Angle, Wettability and Adhesion. Kolloid-ZZ. Polymere, 201 (1965), p. 52J. Kolloid-Z Z Polym. 52, (1965) 201, [7]A.W. Neumann, R.J. Good, C.J. Hope, M.J. Sejpal, Colloid Interface Sci., Physico-chemical surface characterization of hyaluronic acid derivatives as a new class of biomaterials Colloid Interface Sci. 49,(1974) 291-302 [8] Spelt K., Li, D. In A. W. Neumann, J. K. Spelt, Eds., Applied Surface Thermodynamics; Marcel Dekker: New York, pp. (1966) 239-292. [9] D.K. Owens, R.C. Wendt, Estimation of the surface free energy of polymers J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 13, 1741-1747 (1969). [10] C.J. Van Oss, K. Chaudhury, R. Good,. Interfacial Lifshitz-van der Waals and Polar Interactions in Macroscopic Systems J. Chem. Rev., 88 (1988), 927-941. [11]. A. Kwok, A. Li, A. W. Neumann., Low-rate dynamic contact angles on poly(methyl methacrylate/ethyl methacrylate, 30/70) and the determination of solid surface tensions. J. of Polym. Sci., Part B: Polymer Physics, 37,(1999) 2039-2051). [12] Van Krevelen D. W., Properties of Polymers, their estimation and correlation with Chemical structure, Ed. Elsevier, Amsterdam, Chap. 8, (1976) [13] L. Makkonen, On the methods to determine surface energies, Langmuir, 16, (2000) 7669–7672. [14]L. Gargallo, D. RadiĆ¡, Structure/Surface energy relationships of polymers. Current Trends in Polymer science 6 (2001)121-133. [15] A. Rudawska, E. Jacniacka, Analysis for determining surface free energy uncertainty by the Owen–Wendt method International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives 29, 2009, Pages 451–457 [16] M. J. Owen Surface tension of polytrifluoropropylmethylsiloxane Journal of Applied Polymer Science 35 (1988) 895–901 [17] D. K. Owens, R. C. Wendt. Estimation of the surface free energy of polymers. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 13, (1969) 1741-1747 [18] J.M.G. Cowie, I.J. McEwen, J. VeliÄ koviĆ¡Dynamic mechanical spectra of poly(itaconic acid esters) containing phenyl and cyclohexyl rings. Polymer , 16 (1991) 869-872. [19] D. RadiĆ¡, C. Daà ±in, A. Opazo, A., L. Gargallo, Functionalized Polymers 1. poly(dichloroalkyl itaconate)s. Synthesis and Solution Properties. Makromol. Chem., Macromol. Symp. 58,(1992) 209-213 [20]D. RadiĆ¡, L. Gargallo, Synthesis, Solution behavior and reactivity ratios of vinylpyrrolidone-co-monoalkylitaconate and vinylpyrrolidone-co-dialkylitaconate, Macromolecules, 30 (1997) 817-825 [21] B.R. Baker, R.E.. Shaub, G.H. Williams, Oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic Acids. Aguide to current common practice, G. Tojo, M. Fernandez Springer, J. Org. Chem., 17, (1952) 122-125. [22] L. Gargallo, D. Radic ´, A. Leà ³n, Polymer conformation and viscometric behavior 3. Synthesis, characterization and conformational studies in poly(mono-n-octyl itaconate) Makromol. Chem. 186, (1985) 1296. [23]. Burtle, J. G., Turek, W.N. J. Org. Chem., 19, 1567 (1954). [24]. L. Gargallo, M.I. Muà ±oz, D. RadiĆ¡, Polymer conform,ation and viscometric behavior 1. Conformational transition in poly(benzylmethacrylate) in dilute solution Polym. Bull. 10, (1983) 264-270. [25] Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 79th ed., Ed., David R. Lide (CRC, Boca Raton), (1999). [26] Handbook of Data on Organic Compounds, Ed. Robert C. Weast and Melvin J. Astle (CRC, Boca Raton), (1985). [27] Brandrup J., Immergut E.H. Polymer Handbook, Third Edition, Ed. John Wiley sons, New York, (1989). [28]L. Gargallo, D. Vargas, N. Becerra, C. Sandoval, C. Saldà ­as, A. Leiva, D. RadiĆ¡, Supramolecular structures. Organization and Surface behavior at interfaces, Macromol Symp., 278, (2009) 80-88. [29]C. Saldà ­as, L. Gargallo, C. Sandoval, A. Leiva, D. RadiĆ¡, J. Caballero, M Saavedra, F. Gonzà ¡lez-Nilo, Polymer 50 (2009) 2926-2932. Table 1. Surface free energy (SE) of poly(diisoalkylitaconates)s Table 2. Surface free energy (SE) of poly(2-chloroethyl diitaconate) and poli(3-chloropropyl diitaconate) Table 3. Surface free energy (SE) of poly(monoitaconate)s Table 4. Surface free energy (SE) of poly(phenylmethacrylate)s Table 5. Surface free energy for substrates Table 6.Values of the surface free energy for poly(phenylmethacrylate) at different film thicknesses 1

Executive Summary of Sun Cosmetics, Inc. :: Business Management Cosmetics Australia Essays

Executive Summary of Sun Cosmetics, Inc. There are many components to a successful organization, among them is a steady flow of innovative products that are consistently produced to high standards, available to customers when and where they are needed, and backed with diligent service and support. We will demonstrate the viability of capturing a significant market share of sunscreen products Down Under. We will inform you of our unique market entrance plans, our unique product and its marketable attributes. We will layout our target markets and their demographic information, and we will conclude with the profitability remarks necessary to gain your confidence and investment. Sun Cosmetics, Inc., the parent company, was founded in 1955 and has been a publicly held company since 1973. It was incorporated in the State of Massachusetts. Any U.S. legal conflicts fall under the jurisdiction of the Massachusetts state court system. It's annual North American sales of sunscreen products are in excess of $20 billion. Sun Cosmetics created Oceana's development team for the express purpose of penetrating Australia's regional markets. Its members were selected based on their cultural appreciation and adaptability, their research expertise, and their discerning abilities with both primary and secondary data. Cheri Brown, Vice President of International Operations Robert Roy, Director of International Sales & Marketing Helen Quinn, Director of Cultural Adaptation Becky Barth, Director of Research & Development Sun Cosmetics, Inc. will send two expatriate executives to F.H. Faulding & Company Limited to work in commensurate positions and pay grades. The training and marketing guidance is invaluable from both perspectives. Product introduction and formulation Due to the high incident of skin cancer Down Under, primarily originating in young children, we have developed an additive that enables parents and children to see that this sunscreen has in fact been applied to all areas of exposed skin. This additive is a coloring agent that fades approximately three minutes after application. Taking advantage of the Sydney 2000 Olympic Summer Games approach, we have incorporated the additive with an olympic theme: Oceana Gold, Silver & Bronze. The coloring agents will actually be gold, silver or bronze according to the label of the particular sunscreen purchased. In addition to these choices, each color would be available in several degrees of sun protection factor (SPF): SPF4, SPF8, SPF15 & SPF30 (SPF4 being the least and SPF30 being almost total sunblock). Oceana is a non-greasy water resistant sunscreen with aloe vera gel, vitamin E and is paba free. Incidence of skin cancer The high incidence of skin cancer in Australia is the reason for our choice of this product. Skin cancer has been on the rise due to environmental issues

Eve’s Ribcage :: Essays Papers

Eve’s Ribcage Eve’s bedroom was the only place in the world that Josh felt comfortable. The bare and slightly yellowed walls held a certain mysterious wonder for him. The key to the room’s beauty lay in its bareness and simplicity, like old Mexican monasteries with terra cotta tiling on the roof. Josh preferred to keep the lights off and the blinds cracked so that the afternoon filtered in through the window, making thin picturesque rays of light. They painted Eve’s body in long soft strips of sun. When she reclined on her side in the way that she did it reminded him of those nature documentaries that film a lioness lying around in tall grass all day, waiting for dumb animals with long legs to run by and get killed. She was all taut muscle under brown skin accented with bold shadows, a delicate but solid frame slowly rising and falling with each breath. Eve’s feral qualities manifested themselves in her face especially. That strange expression she had: a mixture of pain and pride, boredom and beauty. Her face was always beautiful, no matter what expression she chose to wear. Her sad almond eyes would stare through Josh and beyond into deeper things. This made him want to ask her what she was thinking about, but he rarely ever did. April’s answers never shed light on the mystery of her melancholy and oftentimes they seemed to push him further away. Now she lies with her back facing him, the contour of her naked body a soft watercolor landscape of hills and valleys. He feels like a tourist lying beside her for the last hour or so; absorbing her, analyzing her, thinking about her. She gazes into heaven and talks to the angels while he lies beside her and marvels like a man who has at last reached the end of a long holy pilgrimage. Share my world Don’t you leave Promise I’ll be here Whenever you need me near†¦ Mary J. Blige croaks out her sultry ballad softly in the background. â€Å"Eve†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Her name echoes and makes him feel he as a separate entity all the more acutely. â€Å"You okay?

The Value of Bar Mitzvah Essay -- Bar Mitzvah Speech

This is a Torah portion that I feel represented my values as a whole. The portion is a part of the Parsha Ha-Shavuah which centers on the story of Sarah (Abrahams wife) having a baby at a very old age, and the details around that. Included in the part that I’m reading, theres emphasis that you should be generally hospitable towards others, and that families don’t always follow â€Å"Traditional† patterns. Now, let me explain my values and how they fit into that Parsha: Humor- Humor is important to me because it helps me keep a fresh, clear outlook on life and just generally brightens someone's day- or my day- in general. Also there's that old stereotype that â€Å"Jews have so much to joke about they can't stop.† So why not just keep making jokes about everything!? It certainly helped us get through some of the hardships that our ancestors had, and in my experience, humor can make any situation better. Family- To me, family is the same things as Community; another value that plays at least a small part in my life. Community is family and Family is Community. I think of the Duke Lemur Center as a community of people who all love doing the same thing, but at the same time I like to think of it as a family as well. There’s also the more traditional sense of family that we all know about. Moms, Dads, Grandparents, Aunts, Uncles, Cousins, and other extended family members. Loyalty- I chose loyalty for a few reasons, but mostly the first thing I thought when I saw this was: Wouldn't it be ironic to choose â€Å"Loyalty† as a value, but then not stay loyal to your values and choice of values? The whole thing about loyalty- to people and things – Is keeping the belief or whatever faith you had in that thing or person and sticking to ... ...ence, and the editorial work my Dad helped me do on this (and almost everything I write today), because boy do I need it! I’d also like to thank My Uncle for the hard work he’s put into leading the whole thing, and being a generally awesome uncle. Lastly, I’d like to fully thank Ira for all the hard work he put into helping me make this whole process manageable. Arranging the meetings, giving me guidance and nudges towards the right direction, and being the guy who I can ask questions of and get a straight answer from. So, Ira, thank you so much! Obviously I am very grateful, and I hope we can continue to get to know each other even when this is done. What this experience has meant to me/done for me...why it was worth all the effort I put into it. Works Cited Marx, Harpo. 1961. Harpo speaks! [New York]: B. Geis Associates; distributed by Random House.

Impacts of Internet to Youth Essay

The Internet is a household word in the West and is responsible for the wide dissemination of information all over the world. It is perhaps the greatest invention of the 20th century and gives great power to its users; with great power comes great responsibility, especially for youths. The Internet is a new medium for distributing information. It has its own culture, its own way of communicating, no law enforcement, no national boundaries as well as free access to every kind of information known to mankind. Its potential for good and evil is mind-boggling with the possibility of every household being connected. After the September 11th attacks on the United States, it was rumored that Bin Laden’s Al Qaeda organization used the Internet to covertly exchange messages to prepare for the attacks [Kelley, Jack. Terror groups hide behind Web encryption. USA today. 2001.05.20. Available on life. http://www.usatoday.com/life/cyber/tech/2001-02-05-binladen.htm]. But the Internet has so far mainly served as a very valuable tool to bring mankind closer together and to remove some of the barriers inherent in the â€Å"real† world (such as expensive textbooks and far distances to travel to see someone). It has had a great impact on those countries that have adopted its use and provides some kind of measure of the gap between First World and Third World countries. But what exactly is the Internet? And what are some of its uses? And what are its impacts to the society especially youth? 1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Many computer literate children and youth access the Internet daily for both educational and recreational purposes. While the Internet provides a wealth of positive information, there has been increased awareness of its potential dangers, especially to young people. To address concerns surrounding Internet safety, in 1999 the Internet Safety Group of New Zealand was established. The Internet Safety Group is comprised of a number of Community groups and government agencies. Their objective â€Å"is to offer Schools and libraries resources that will help them educate and protect children and Young people, and educate parents/caregivers on the safe use of the Internet.† (Internet Safety Group, 2000, p.3). There has been much discussion to date about the ‘unsafe’ Internet practices of youth. Empirical research in this area is however limited. Auckland Rape Crisis, as a member of the Internet Safety Group, wanted to increase their knowledge and understanding of how you th use the Internet, and more specifically what youth may or may not be doing to place themselves at risk as a result of being on-line. Thus, it is imperative to study on the impacts of Internet to youth in Tanzania. 1.3 IMPORTANCE THE STUDY 1. The study will help the researcher to have practical skills on conducting research. 2. The study will open room for other researches to be conducted on the field so as to identify what should be done to prepare youth to overcome the challenges of Internet. 3. The study will also help the government and stakeholders in policy making to review country policies concerning the usage of Internet. 4. The study will also reveal the danger associate to internet usage among youth in Tanzania. 5. The study will also reveal the danger associate to internet usage among youth in Tanzania as far as our culture is concerned. 1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY Specifically the study will focus on the following objectives: 1)To find out and analyze the level of youth awareness and competence in the use of Internet. 2)To identify different types of Internet services and their uses to youth in Tanzania. 3)To identify what are the positive and negative impact of internet to youth in Tanzania. 4)To identify what youth in Tanzania benefit from Internet usage. 1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY The study will focus mainly on identifying uses of internet among youth in Tanzania and how internet affect their behavior and their day to day activity plus revealing the advantages that they will obtain from the internet. To meet the goal the researcher will study and analyze critically youth behavior on using the internet, what services they prefer to use on the internet, what kind of Webpages they prefer to visit and how internet affects them. 1.6 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY The study is affected by the following limitations: a)Fund provided by the sponsor is limited hence the researcher will conduct the study in accordance to the fund available. b)Availability respondents and response from respondents will limit the researcher form getting relevant information at the right time. c)There is no enough proof of the information given by respondents, which might limit the research from meeting the objective of the research d)The availability of literature will affect the study. Few literatures may hinder the efficiency of the study. 1.7 RESEARCH QUESTIONS The study will investigate on the following questions: 1.Are youth in Tanzania aware of the Internet and to what extent? 2.What service offered by Internet (web) do youth prefers? 3.How Internet influences youth behavior? 4.How does youth benefit from the Internet? STATISTICAL HYPOTHESIS 1.Are youth in Tanzania aware of the Internet and to what extent? Hypothesis †¢Youth in Tanzania are aware of internet †¢Youth in Tanzania are not aware of internet 2.What service offered by Internet/web do youth prefers? Hypothesis †¢Youth prefer most of the services offered by the web. †¢Youth do not prefer most of the services offered by the web. 3.How Internet influences youth behavior? Hypothesis †¢Internet does influence youth behavior. †¢Internet does not influence youth behavior. 4.How does youth benefit from the Internet? Hypothesis †¢Youth does benefit from the Internet. †¢Youth does not benefit from the Internet.